全钒液流电池用电极材料的研究进展

doi:10.61558/2993-074X.3589

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

全钒液流电池的活性物质存在于电解质中，电极不参与反应，但电极是VO²⁺/VO₂⁺ 和V²⁺/V³⁺活性物质吸附，进行电子传递与离子转换的有效场所。促进VO²⁺/VO₂⁺和V²⁺/V³⁺反应的缓慢电荷转移特性是目前全钒液流电池电极材料研究工作的瓶颈，这主要是由于电极催化性能差以及催化剂与电极的附着力弱造成的。针对课题研究进展及以上关键科学问题，本文对当前全钒液流电池用电极材料的设计与制备方法进行了综述。首先，综述了全钒液流电池的发展历史、工作原理、应用现状以及具有的优缺点；其次，就全钒液流电池在国内外的研究现状，以及发展至今存在的问题进行了归纳分析；再次总结了全钒液流电池电极材料的分类，详述了各类电极的优缺点；最后，梳理了碳基电极材料的制备及在全钒液流电池中的应用，为未来构筑高效双功能催化剂提供借鉴和实现高效、稳定的全钒液流电池提供方法和基础。

关键词: 全钒液流电池, 电极材料, 碳基纳米材料, 缺陷可控

Abstract:

The redox active species in all-vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) reside in the electrolyte, while the heterogeneous reactions occur on the electrode surface; the electrode is therefore the decisive platform for dynamic adsorption, electron transfer, and ion conversion, especially for the VO²⁺/VO₂⁺ and V²⁺/V³⁺ couples. One of the major challenges for VRFBs is the slow charge transfer in VO²⁺/VO₂⁺ and V²⁺/V³⁺ reactions, mainly caused by poor catalytic performance of electrodes and weak adhesion of catalysts to electrodes. This review focuses on the key challenges and recent advancements in VRFBs. It begins with an overview of VRFBs, including their history, working principles, applications, and the advantages and limitations associated with their use. One persistent, under-addressed trade-off is that strategies that boost apparent activity (e.g., high defect density or surface area) can degrade adhesion and cycling durability under flow shear; activity should therefore be co-reported with adhesion and durability descriptors. Addressing this trade-off is critical to improving overall efficiency and stability in VRFBs systems. A comprehensive discussion of various electrode materials is presented, categorized by their properties and preparation methods. Special emphasis is placed on the synthesis and application of carbon-based electrode materials, highlighting their potential in addressing these challenges. Finally, we map materials-level gains to stack- and system-level metrics, and outline strategies, with a focus on bifunctional and in-situ grown catalysts, for achieving high-efficiency, high-stability VRFBs.

Key words: Vanadium redox flow batteries, Electrode material, Carbon-based nanomaterials, Defect-tailor

王文琪, 金杰, 汪丽敏, 刘馨月, 程涛, 厚镛, 薛涵, 王志宇, 刘博, 刘佳保, 路旭斌. 全钒液流电池用电极材料的研究进展[J]. 电化学（中英文）, 2026, 32(2): 2507081.

Wen-Qi Wang, Jie Jin, Li-Min Wang, Xin-Yue Liu, Tao Cheng, Yong Hou, Han Xue, Zhi-Yu Wang, Bo Liu, Jia-Bao Liu, Xu-Bin Lu. Current Research Progress on Electrode Materials for All-Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries[J]. Journal of Electrochemistry, 2026, 32(2): 2507081.

导出引用管理器 EndNote|Ris|BibTeX

链接本文: https://electrochem.xmu.edu.cn/CN/10.61558/2993-074X.3589

https://electrochem.xmu.edu.cn/CN/Y2026/V32/I2/2507081

图/表 15

参考文献 135

[1]	Chinese Society of Electrochemistry. The top ten scientific questions in electrochemistry[J]. J. Electrochem., 2024, 30(1): 2024121. https://doi.org/10.61558/2993-074X.3444. doi: 10.61558/2993-074X.3444 URL
[2]	Han M S, Zheng K X, Hu H Y, Liu J, Zou Z Y, Yu F H, Mu Y B, Li W J, Wei L, Zeng L, Zhao T S. Long-duration energy-storage technologies: A stabilizer for new power systems[J]. Innovation Energy, 2025, 2: 100077. https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-energy.2025.100077. doi: 10.59717/j.xinn-energy.2025.100077 URL
[3]	Pérez-Díaz J I, Chazarra M, García-González J, Cavazzini G, Stoppato A. Trends and challenges in the operation of pumped-storage hydropower plants[J]. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2015, 44: 767-784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.029. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.029 URL
[4]	Cavallo A. Controllable and affordable utility-scale electricity from intermittent wind resources and compressed air energy storage (CAES)[J]. Energy, 2007, 32(2): 120-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.03.018. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2006.03.018 URL
[5]	Krishan O, Suhag S. An updated review of energy storage systems: Classification and applications in distributed generation power systems incorporating renewable energy resources[J]. Int. J. Energy Res., 2019, 43(12): 6171-6210. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4285. doi: 10.1002/er.v43.12 URL
[6]	Wang W, Luo Q T, Li B, Wei X L, Li L Y, Yang Z G. Recent progress in redox flow battery research and development[J]. Adv. Funct. Mater., 2013, 23(8): 970-986. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201200694. doi: 10.1002/adfm.v23.8 URL
[7]	Pugach M, Parsegov S, Gryazina E, Bischi A. Output feedback control of electrolyte flow rate for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Power Sources, 2020, 455: 227916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.227916. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.227916 URL
[8]	Zhang K Y, Xiong J, Yan C W, Tang A. In-situ measurement of electrode kinetics in porous electrode for vanadium flow batteries using symmetrical cell design[J]. Appl. Energy, 2020, 272: 115093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115093. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115093 URL
[9]	Song Y X, Li X R, Yan C W, Tang A. Unraveling the viscosity impact on volumetric transfer in redox flow batteries[J]. J. Power Sources, 2020, 456: 228004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228004. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228004 URL
[10]	Liu B J, Liu S Q, He Z, Zhao K M, Li J C, Wei X L, Huang R J, Yang Y L. Improving the performance of negative electrode for vanadium redox flow battery by decorating bismuth hydrogen edetate complex on carbon felt[J]. Ionics, 2019, 25: 4231-4241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-019-02988-5. doi: 10.1007/s11581-019-02988-5 URL
[11]	Skyllas-Kazacos M, Kazacos M. State of charge monitoring methods for vanadium redox flow battery control[J]. J. Power Sources, 2011, 196(20): 8822-8827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.06.080. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.06.080 URL
[12]	Corcuera S, Skyllas-Kazacos M. State-of-charge monitoring and electrolyte rebalancing methods for the vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Eur. Chem. Bull, 2012, 1(12): 511-519. https://doi.org/10.17628/ecb.2012.1.511-519.
[13]	Lourenssen K, Williams J, Ahmadpour F, Clemmer R, Tasnim S. Vanadium redox flow batteries: A comprehensive review[J]. J. Energy Storage, 2019, 25: 100844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.100844. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2019.100844 URL
[14]	Yuan X Z, Song C J, Platt A, Zhao N N, Wang H J, Li H, Fatih K, Jang D. A review of all‐vanadium redox flow battery durability: Degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies[J]. Int. J. Energy Res., 2019, 43(13): 6599-6638. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4607.
[15]	Yang X B, Zhao L, Goh K, Sui X L, Meng L H, Wang Z B. A highly proton-/vanadium-selective perfluorosulfonic acid membrane for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. New J. Chem., 2019, 43(28): 11374-11381. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9NJ01453E. doi: 10.1039/C9NJ01453E URL
[16]	Liu Q B, Li X R, Yan C W, Tang A. A dopamine-based high redox potential catholyte for aqueous organic redox flow battery[J]. J. Power Sources, 2020, 460: 228124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228124. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228124 URL
[17]	Wang W, Kim S, Chen B W, Nie Z M, Zhang J J, Xia G G, Li L Y, Yang Z G. A new redox flow battery using Fe/V redox couples in chloride supporting electrolyte[J]. Energy Environ. Sci., 2011, 4(10): 4068-4073. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0EE00765J. doi: 10.1039/c0ee00765j URL
[18]	Zhang H, Tan Y, Luo X D, Sun C Y, Chen N. Polarization effects of a rayon and polyacrylonitrile based graphite felt for iron-chromium redox flow batteries[J]. ChemElectroChem, 2019, 6(12): 3175-3188. https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.201900518. doi: 10.1002/celc.201900518 URL
[19]	Singh P, Jonshagen B. Zinc-bromine battery for energy storage[J]. J. Power Sources, 1991, 35(4): 405-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(91)80059-7. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(91)80059-7 URL
[20]	Sum E, Rychcik M, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Investigation of the V (V)/V (IV) system for use in the positive half-cell of a redox battery[J]. J. Power Sources, 1985, 16(2): 293-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(85)80082-3. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(85)80094-X URL
[21]	Sum E, Skyllas-Kazacos M. A study of the V (II)/V (III) redox couple for redox flow cell applications[J]. J. Power Sources, 1985, 15(2-3): 179-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(85)80071-9. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(85)80071-9 URL
[22]	Skyllas-Kazacos M, Rychcik M, Robins RG, Fane A, Green M. New all-vanadium redox flow cell[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1986, 133(5): 1057. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2108706. doi: 10.1149/1.2108706 URL
[23]	Skyllas‐Kazacos M, Grossmith F. Efficient vanadium redox flow cell[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1987, 134(12): 2950. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2100321. doi: 10.1149/1.2100321 URL
[24]	Skyllas-Kazacos M, Chakrabarti M, Hajimolana S, Mjalli F, Saleem M. Progress in flow battery research and development[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2011, 158(8): R55. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3599565.
[25]	Schwenzer B, Zhang J L, Kim S, Li L Y, Liu J, Yang Z G. Membrane development for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. ChemSusChem, 2011, 4(10): 1388-1406. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201100068. URL pmid: 22102992
[26]	Parasuraman A, Lim TM, Menictas C, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Review of material research and development for vanadium redox flow battery applications[J]. Electrochim. Acta, 2013, 101: 27-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.067. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.067 URL
[27]	Zhong S, Padeste C, Kazacos M, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Comparison of the physical, chemical and electrochemical properties of rayon-and polyacrylonitrile-based graphite felt electrodes[J]. J. Power Sources, 1993, 45(1): 29-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(93)80006-B. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(93)80006-B URL
[28]	Zhang M Q, Moore M, Watson J, Zawodzinski TA, Counce RM. Capital cost sensitivity analysis of an all-vanadium redox-flow battery[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2012, 159(8): A1183. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.041208jes.
[29]	Watt-Smith M J, Ridley P, Wills R, Shah A A, Walsh F. The importance of key operational variables and electrolyte monitoring to the performance of an all vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 2013, 88(1): 126-138. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.3870.
[30]	Puleston T, Clemente A, Costa-Castelló R, Serra M. Modelling and estimation of vanadium redox flow batteries: A review[J]. Batteries, 2022, 8(9): 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090121. doi: 10.3390/batteries8090121 URL
[31]	Sun B T, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Chemical modification of graphite electrode materials for vanadium redox flow battery application—part II. Acid treatments[J]. Electrochim. Acta, 1992, 37(13): 2459-2465. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4686(92)87084-D. doi: 10.1016/0013-4686(92)87084-D URL
[32]	Deng Q, Huang P, Zhou W X, Ma Q, Zhou N, Xie H, Ling W, Zhou C J, Yin Y X, Wu X W. A high‐performance composite electrode for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Adv. Energy Mater., 2017, 7(18): 1700461. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201700461. doi: 10.1002/aenm.v7.18 URL
[33]	Choi C, Noh H, Kim S, Kim R, Lee J, Heo J, Kim H T. Understanding the redox reaction mechanism of vanadium electrolytes in all-vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Energy Storage, 2019, 21: 321-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2018.11.002. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2018.11.002 URL
[34]	Radinger H, Pfisterer J, Scheiba F, Ehrenberg H. Influence and electrochemical stability of oxygen groups and edge sites in vanadium redox reactions[J]. ChemElectroChem, 2020, 7(23): 4745-4754. https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.202001387. doi: 10.1002/celc.v7.23 URL
[35]	Yuan R L, Dong Y, Zhang S, Chen X H, Song H H. Efficient utilization of the active sites in defective graphene blocks through functionalization synergy for compact capacitive energy storage[J]. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2021, 13(48): 57092-57099. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c15147. doi: 10.1021/acsami.1c15147 URL
[36]	Taylor S M, Pătru A, Perego D, Fabbri E, Schmidt T J. Influence of carbon material properties on activity and stability of the negative electrode in vanadium redox flow batteries: a model electrode study[J]. ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2018, 1(3): 1166-1174. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.7b00273. doi: 10.1021/acsaem.7b00273 URL
[37]	Zhang G H, Cuharuc AS, Güell A G, Unwin P R. Electrochemistry at highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG): lower limit for the kinetics of outer-sphere redox processes and general implications for electron transfer models[J]. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2015, 17(17): 11827-11838. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CP00383K. doi: 10.1039/c5cp00383k URL pmid: 25869656
[38]	Pour N, Kwabi DG, Carney T, Darling RM, Perry ML, Shao-Horn Y. Influence of edge-and basal-plane sites on the vanadium redox kinetics for flow batteries[J]. J. Phys. Chem. C, 2015, 119(10): 5311-5318. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp5116806. doi: 10.1021/jp5116806 URL
[39]	Choi GB, Hong S, Wee J-H, Kim D-W, Seo TH, Nomura K, Nishihara H, Kim YA. Quantifying carbon edge sites on depressing hydrogen evolution reaction activity[J]. Nano Lett., 2020, 20(8): 5885-5892. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01842. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01842 URL pmid: 32584587
[40]	Ding C, Shen Z F, Zhu Y, Cheng Y H. Insights into the modification of carbonous felt as an electrode for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Materials, 2023, 16(10): 3811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103811. doi: 10.3390/ma16103811 URL
[41]	Rahman F, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Vanadium redox battery: Positive half-cell electrolyte studies[J]. J. Power Sources, 2009, 189(2): 1212-1219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.12.113. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.12.113 URL
[42]	Zhang J L, Li L Y, Nie Z M, Chen B W, Vijayakumar M, Kim S, Wang W, Schwenzer B, Liu J, Yang Z G. Effects of additives on the stability of electrolytes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Appl. Electrochem., 2011, 41: 1215-1221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-011-0312-1. doi: 10.1007/s10800-011-0312-1 URL
[43]	Choi C, Kim S, Kim R, Choi Y, Kim S, Jung H-y, Yang J H, Kim H T. A review of vanadium electrolytes for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 2017, 69: 263-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.188. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.188 URL
[44]	Cunha Á, Brito F, Martins J, Rodrigues N, Monteiro V, Afonso J L, Ferreira P. Assessment of the use of vanadium redox flow batteries for energy storage and fast charging of electric vehicles in gas stations[J]. Energy, 2016, 115: 1478-1494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.02.118. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2016.02.118 URL
[45]	Maghsoudy S, Rahimi M, Dehkordi A M. Investigation on various types of ion-exchange membranes in vanadium redox flow batteries: Experiment and modeling[J]. J. Energy Storage, 2022, 54: 105347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105347. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.105347 URL
[46]	Sreenath S, PS N, Krebsz M, Andrews J, Nagarale RK. Ion exchange membranes: latest developments toward high-performance vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2024, 7(23): 10846-10876. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.4c01714. doi: 10.1021/acsaem.4c01714 URL
[47]	Huynh TTK, Yang T, PS N, Yang Y, Ye J Y, Wang H X. Construction of high-performance membranes for vanadium redox flow batteries: challenges, development, and perspectives[J]. Nano-Micro Lett., 2025, 17(1): 260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01736-x. doi: 10.1007/s40820-025-01736-x URL pmid: 40387968
[48]	Ikhsan M M, Abbas S, Do X H, Ha H Y, Azizi K, Henkensmeier D. Sulfonated polystyrene/polybenzimidazole bilayer membranes for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Adv. Energy Mater., 2025, 15(25): 2400139. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202400139. doi: 10.1002/aenm.v15.25 URL
[49]	Bui TT, Shin M, Abbas S, Ikhsan M M, Do X H, Dayan A, Almind M R, Park S, Aili D, Hjelm J. Sulfonated para‐polybenzimidazole membranes for use in vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Adv. Energy Mater., 2025, 15(25): 2401375. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202401375. doi: 10.1002/aenm.v15.25 URL
[50]	Vrána J, Charvát J, Mazúr P, Bělský P, Dundálek J, Pocedič J, Kosek J. Commercial perfluorosulfonic acid membranes for vanadium redox flow battery: Effect of ion-exchange capacity and membrane internal structure[J]. J. Membr. Sci., 2018, 552: 202-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.02.011. doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.02.011 URL
[51]	Prifti H, Parasuraman A, Winardi S, Lim T M, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Membranes for redox flow battery applications[J]. Membranes, 2012, 2(2): 275-306. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes2020275. doi: 10.3390/membranes2020275 URL pmid: 24958177
[52]	Li X F, Zhang H, M Mai Z S, Zhang H Z, Vankelecom I. Ion exchange membranes for vanadium redox flow battery (VRB) applications[J]. Energy Environ. Sci., 2011, 4(4): 1147-1160. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0EE00770F. doi: 10.1039/c0ee00770f URL
[53]	Huang Z B, Mu A L, Wu L X, Yang B, Qian Y, Wang J H. Comprehensive analysis of critical issues in all-vanadium redox flow battery[J]. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2022, 10(24): 7786-7810. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c01372. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c01372 URL
[54]	Nibel O, Rojek T, Schmidt TJ, Gubler L. Amphoteric ion‐exchange membranes with significantly improved vanadium barrier properties for all‐vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. ChemSusChem, 2017, 10(13): 2767-2777. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201700610. doi: 10.1002/cssc.201700610 URL pmid: 28544623
[55]	Xi J Y, Wu Z H, Qiu X P, Chen L Q. Nafion/SiO₂ hybrid membrane for vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Power Sources, 2007, 166(2): 531-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.01.069. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.01.069 URL
[56]	Jeong J M, Dai J, Acauan L, Jeong K I, Lee J, Li C X, Hong H, Wardle B L, Kim S S. Aligned carbon nanotube polymer nanocomposite bipolar plates technology for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Energy Environ. Mater., 2025: e70030. https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.70030.
[57]	Gautam R K, Kumar A. A review of bipolar plate materials and flow field designs in the all-vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Energy Storage, 2022, 48: 104003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104003 doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.104003 URL
[58]	Hao H H, Zhang Q A, Feng Z Y, Tang A. Regulating flow field design on carbon felt electrode towards high power density operation of vanadium flow batteries[J]. Chem. Eng. J., 2022, 450: 138170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.138170. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2022.138170 URL
[59]	Wang T H, Yuan Z. Enhanced performance and reduced pumping loss in vanadium flow battery enabled by a leaf-vein-inspired flow field design[J]. J. Energy Storage, 2025, 114: 115720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2025.115720. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2025.115720 URL
[60]	Yang T F, Chen Y K, Lin C Y, Yan W M, Rashidi S. Effects of flow field designs on performance characteristics of vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 2025, 171: 106043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2025.106043. doi: 10.1016/j.jtice.2025.106043 URL
[61]	Kim K J, Park M S, Kim Y J, Kim J H, Dou S X, Skyllas-Kazacos M. A technology review of electrodes and reaction mechanisms in vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2015, 3(33): 16913-16933. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TA02613J. doi: 10.1039/C5TA02613J URL
[62]	Rychcik M, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Evaluation of electrode materials for vanadium redox cell[J]. J. Power Sources, 1987, 19(1): 45-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(87)80006-X. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(87)80006-X URL
[63]	Hossain M H, Abdullah N, Tan K H, Saidur R, Mohd Radzi M A, Shafie S. Evolution of vanadium redox flow battery in electrode[J]. Chem. Rec., 2024, 24(1): e202300092. https://doi.org/10.1002/tcr.202300092. doi: 10.1002/tcr.v24.1 URL
[64]	Gencten M, Sahin Y. A critical review on progress of the electrode materials of vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Int. J. Energy Res., 2020, 44(10): 7903-7923. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5487. doi: 10.1002/er.v44.10 URL
[65]	Raghu S C, Ulaganathan M, Lim T M, Kazacos M S. Electrochemical behaviour of titanium/iridium (IV) oxide: Tantalum pentoxide and graphite for application in vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Power Sources, 2013, 238: 103-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.03.084. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.03.084 URL
[66]	Xu J, Zhang Y Q, Huang Z F, Jia C K, Wang S Y. Surface modification of carbon-based electrodes for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Energy Fuels, 2021, 35(10): 8617-8633. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c00722. doi: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c00722 URL
[67]	Dai L, Chen X R, Cheng T K, Qi S T, Zhu J, Feng Z M, Wang L, Jiang Y Q, Li Y H, He Z X. Major obstacles and optimization strategies for the electrode of vanadium redox flow battery[J]. ACS Mater. Lett., 2024, 6(7): 2816-2836. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmaterialslett.4c00517.
[68]	Zhang X H, Liu L S, Hou S Y, Zhou Q, Zhang Y B, Chen X H, Pu N W, Liu J G, Yan C W. Nitrogen, Nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur co-doped carbon nanotubes/melamine foam composite electrode for high-performance vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2024, 190: 127-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2023.12.029. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2023.12.029 URL
[69]	Bao J J, Yang W, Xu K, Li Z H, Kong Y M, Sun L C, Shi Y. Hierarchical carbon shell@C₃N₄ incorporated graphite felt as electrode for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Power Sources, 2025, 642: 236741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2025.236741. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2025.236741 URL
[70]	Jiang Q C, Ren Y J, Yang Y J, Wang L, Dai L, He Z X. Recent advances in carbon-based electrocatalysts for vanadium redox flow battery: Mechanisms, properties, and perspectives[J]. Composites Part B, 2022, 242: 110094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.110094. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.110094 URL
[71]	Wei G J, Jing M H, Fan X Z, Liu J G, Yan C W. A new electrocatalyst and its application method for vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Power Sources, 2015, 287: 81-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.04.041. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.04.041 URL
[72]	Kaur A, Singh G, Lim J W. High-performance composite electrode based on polyaniline/graphene oxide carbon network for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Compos. Struct., 2025, 351: 118606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2024.118606. doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2024.118606 URL
[73]	Wu X W, Yamamura T, Ohta S, Zhang Q X, Lv F C, Liu C M, Shirasaki K, Satoh I, Shikama T, Lu D. Acceleration of the redox kinetics of VO₂⁺/VO²⁺ and V³⁺/V²⁺ couples on carbon paper[J]. J. of Appl. Electrochem., 2011, 41: 1183-1190. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b05864. doi: 10.1007/s10800-011-0343-7 URL
[74]	He Z X, Chen Z S, Meng W, Jiang Y Q, Cheng G, Dai L, Wang L. Modified carbon cloth as positive electrode with high electrochemical performance for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Energy Chem., 2016, 25(4): 720-725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2016.04.002. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2016.04.002 URL
[75]	Eifert L, Banerjee R, Jusys Z, Zeis R. Characterization of carbon felt electrodes for vanadium redox flow batteries: impact of treatment methods[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2018, 165(11): A2577. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0531811jes.
[76]	Caiado A A, Chaurasia S, Aravamuthan S R, Howell B R, Inalpolat M, Gallaway J W, Agar E. Exploring the effectiveness of carbon cloth electrodes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2023, 170(11): 110525. https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ad0a80. doi: 10.1149/1945-7111/ad0a80 URL
[77]	Lee M E, Jin H J, Yun Y S. Synergistic catalytic effects of oxygen and nitrogen functional groups on active carbon electrodes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. RSC Adv., 2017, 7(68): 43227-43232. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA08334C. doi: 10.1039/C7RA08334C URL
[78]	Jiang Y Q, Wang Y H, Cheng G, Li Y H, Dai L, Zhu J, Meng W, Xi J Y, Wang L, He Z X. Multiple‐dimensioned defect engineering for graphite felt electrode of vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Carbon Energy, 2024, 6(2): e537. https://doi.org/10.1002/cey2.537. doi: 10.1002/cey2.v6.2 URL
[79]	Moghim MH, Eqra R, Babaiee M, Zarei-Jelyani M, Loghavi M M. Role of reduced graphene oxide as nano-electrocatalyst in carbon felt electrode of vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2017, 789: 67-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2017.02.031. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2017.02.031 URL
[80]	Melke J, Jakes P, Langner J, Riekehr L, Kunz U, Zhao-Karger Z, Nefedov A, Sezen H, Wöll C, Ehrenberg H. Carbon materials for the positive electrode in all-vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Carbon, 2014, 78: 220-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2014.06.075. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2014.06.075 URL
[81]	Schilling M, Ershov A, Debastiani R, Duan K, Köble K, Scherer S, Lan L, Rampf A, Faragó T, Zuber M. Bamboo charcoal as electrode material for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Energy Adv., 2024, 3(5): 997-1008. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4YA00166D. doi: 10.1039/D4YA00166D URL
[82]	Zhou X L, Zhao T S, Zeng Y K, An L, Wei L. A highly permeable and enhanced surface area carbon-cloth electrode for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Power Sources, 2016, 329: 247-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.08.085. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.08.085 URL
[83]	Xing F, Wang S, Fu Q, Liu T, Li X F. Heteroatom-tuned Bi pz-orbital hybridization of single-atom catalysts for high-power density vanadium flow batteries[J]. Energy Storage Mater., 2025: 104472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2025.104472.
[84]	Guo J C, Pan L, Sun J, Wei D B, Dai Q X, Xu J H, Li Q L, Han M S, Wei L, Zhao T S. Metal-free fabrication of nitrogen-doped vertical graphene on graphite felt electrodes with enhanced reaction kinetics and mass transport for high-performance redox flow batteries[J]. Adv. Energy Mater., 2024, 14(1): 2302521. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202302521. doi: 10.1002/aenm.v14.1 URL
[85]	Zhang X Y, Valencia A, Li W L, Ao K, Shi J H, Yue X, Zhang R Q, Daoud W A. Decoupling activation and transport by electron-regulated atomic‐Bi harnessed surface-to-pore interface for vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Adv. Mater., 2024, 36(6): 2305415. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202305415. doi: 10.1002/adma.v36.6 URL
[86]	Sun J, Wu M C, Fan X Z, Wan Y H, Chao C Y H, Zhao T S. Aligned microfibers interweaved with highly porous carbon nanofibers: A Novel electrode for high-power vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Energy Storage Mater., 2021, 43: 30-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.08.034.
[87]	Xing F, Liu T, Yin Y B, Bi R, Zhang Q, Yin L K, Li X F. Highly active hollow porous carbon spheres@graphite felt composite electrode for high power density vanadium flow batteries[J]. Adv. Funct. Mater., 2022, 32(18): 2111267. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202111267. doi: 10.1002/adfm.v32.18 URL
[88]	Deng Q, Zhou W B, Wang H R, Fu N, Wu X W, Wu Y P. Aspergillus niger derived wrinkle‐like carbon as superior electrode for advanced vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Adv. Sci., 2023, 10(18): 2300640. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202300640. doi: 10.1002/advs.v10.18 URL
[89]	Xing F, Fu Q, Xing F, Zhao J, Long H Y, Liu T, Li X F. Bismuth single atoms regulated graphite felt electrode boosting high power density vanadium flow batteries[J]. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2024, 146(38): 26024-26033. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.4c04951. doi: 10.1021/jacs.4c04951 URL pmid: 39283652
[90]	Huangyang X Y, Wang H R, Zhou W B, Deng Q, Liu Z, Zeng X X, Wu X W, Ling W. In situ growth of amorphous MnO₂ on graphite felt via mild etching engineering as a powerful catalyst for advanced vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2024, 16(25): 32189-32197. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c02971. doi: 10.1021/acsami.4c02971 URL
[91]	Liu L S, Zhang X H, Zhang D H, Zhang K Y, Hou S Y, Wang S L, Zhang Y F, Peng H Q, Liu J G, Yan C W. Regulating the N/B ratio to construct B, N co-doped carbon nanotubes on carbon felt for high-performance vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Chem. Eng. J., 2023, 473: 145454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.145454 doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.145454 URL
[92]	Shi X Y, Esan O C, Huo X Y, Ma Y N, Pan Z F, An L, Zhao T S. Polymer electrolyte membranes for vanadium redox flow batteries: fundamentals and applications[J]. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci., 2021, 85: 100926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2021.100926. doi: 10.1016/j.pecs.2021.100926 URL
[93]	Yue L, Li W, Sun F, Zhao L, Xing L. Highly hydroxylated carbon fibres as electrode materials of all-vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Carbon, 2010, 48(11): 3079-3090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2010.04.044.
[94]	Kaur A, Jeong K I, Kim S S, Lim J W. Optimization of thermal treatment of carbon felt electrode based on the mechanical properties for high-efficiency vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Compos. Struct., 2022, 290: 115546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.115546. doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.115546 URL
[95]	Li X G, Huang K L, Liu S Q, Ning T, Chen L Q. Characteristics of graphite felt electrode electrochemically oxidized for vanadium redox battery application[J]. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China, 2007, 17(1): 195-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(07)60071-5. doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(07)60071-5 URL
[96]	Zhang G X, Sun S H, Yang D Q, Dodelet J P, Sacher E. The surface analytical characterization of carbon fibers functionalized by H₂SO₄/HNO₃ treatment[J]. Carbon, 2008, 46(2): 196-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2007.11.002. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2007.11.002 URL
[97]	Zhang W G, Xi J Y, Li Z H, Zhou H P, Liu L, Wu Z H, Qiu X P. Electrochemical activation of graphite felt electrode for VO²⁺/VO₂⁺ redox couple application[J]. Electrochim. Acta, 2013, 89: 429-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.11.072. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.11.072 URL
[98]	Li W W, Chu Y Q, Ma C A. Highly hydroxylated graphite felts used as electrodes for a vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Adv. Mater. Res., 2014, 936: 471-475. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.936.471.
[99]	Zhang P F, Gong Y T, Li H R, Chen Z R, Wang Y. Solvent-free aerobic oxidation of hydrocarbons and alcohols with Pd@N-doped carbon from glucose[J]. Nat. Commun., 2013, 4(1): 1593. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2586. doi: 10.1038/ncomms2586 URL
[100]	Di Blasi A, Busaccaa C, Di Blasia O, Briguglioa N, Squadritoa G, Antonuccia V. Synthesis of flexible electrodes based on electrospun carbon nanofibers with Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles for vanadium redox flow battery application[J]. Appl. Energy, 2017, 190: 165-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.12.129. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.12.129 URL
[101]	Chang Y C, Chen J Y, Kabtamu D M, Lin G Y, Hsu N Y, Chou Y S, Wei H J, Wang C H. High efficiency of CO₂-activated graphite felt as electrode for vanadium redox flow battery application[J]. J. Power Sources, 2017, 364: 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.07.103. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.07.103 URL
[102]	Liu Y C, Shen Y, Yu L H, Liu L, Liang F, Qiu X P, Xi J Y. Holey-engineered electrodes for advanced vanadium flow batteries[J]. Nano Energy, 2018, 43: 55-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.11.012. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.11.012 URL
[103]	Li T, Zhang W L, Zhi L, Yu H, Dang L P, Shi F, Xu H, Hu F Y, Liu Z H, Lei Z B. High-energy asymmetric electrochemical capacitors based on oxides functionalized hollow carbon fibers electrodes[J]. Nano Energy, 2016, 30: 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.09.023. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.09.023 URL
[104]	Jiang H R, Shyy W, Wu M C, Zhang R H, Zhao T S. A bi-porous graphite felt electrode with enhanced surface area and catalytic activity for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Appl. Energy, 2019, 233: 105-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.10.033.
[105]	Amini K, Gostick J, Pritzker M D. Metal and metal oxide electrocatalysts for redox flow batteries[J]. Adv. Funct. Mater., 2020, 30(23): 1910564. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201910564. doi: 10.1002/adfm.v30.23 URL
[106]	Li B, Gu M, Nie Z M, Shao Y Y, Luo Q T, Wei X L, Li X L, Xiao J, Wang C M, Sprenkle V. Bismuth nanoparticle decorating graphite felt as a high-performance electrode for an all-vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Nano Lett., 2013, 13(3): 1330-1335. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl400223v. doi: 10.1021/nl400223v URL pmid: 23398147
[107]	Liu Y C, Liang F, Zhao Y, Yu L H, Liu L, Xi J Y. Broad temperature adaptability of vanadium redox flow battery-part 4: unraveling wide temperature promotion mechanism of bismuth for V²⁺/V³⁺ couple[J]. J. Energy Chem., 2018, 27(5): 1333-1340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2018.01.028. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2018.01.028 URL
[108]	Abbas S, Lee H, Hwang J, Mehmood A, Shin H J, Mehboob S, Lee J Y, Ha H Y. A novel approach for forming carbon nanorods on the surface of carbon felt electrode by catalytic etching for high-performance vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Carbon, 2018, 128: 31-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2017.11.066. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2017.11.066 URL
[109]	Li W Y, Liu J G, Yan C W. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes used as an electrode reaction catalyst for VO₂⁺/VO²⁺ for a vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Carbon, 2011, 49(11): 3463-3470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.04.045. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2011.04.045 URL
[110]	Zhou Y, Liu L, Shen Y, Wu L T, Yu L H, Liang F, Xi J Y. Carbon dots promoted vanadium flow batteries for all-climate energy storage[J]. Chem. Commun., 2017, 53(54): 7565-7568. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7CC00691H. doi: 10.1039/C7CC00691H URL
[111]	Wei L, Zhao T S, Zhao G, An L, Zeng L. A high-performance carbon nanoparticle-decorated graphite felt electrode for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Appl. Energy, 2016, 176: 74-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.048. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.048 URL
[112]	Sodiq A, Fasmin F, Mohapatra L, Mariyam S, Arunachalam M, Hamoudi H, Zaffou R, Merzougui B. Enhanced electrochemical performance of modified thin carbon electrodes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Mater. Adv., 2020, 1(6): 2033-2042. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0MA00142B. doi: 10.1039/D0MA00142B URL
[113]	He Z X, Shi L, Shen J X, He Z, Liu S Q. Effects of nitrogen doping on the electrochemical performance of graphite felts for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Int. J. Energy Res., 2015, 39(5): 709-716. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3291. doi: 10.1002/er.v39.5 URL
[114]	Lee H J, Kim H. Graphite felt coated with dopamine-derived nitrogen-doped carbon as a positive electrode for a vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2015, 162(8): A1675. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0081509jes.
[115]	Huang P, Ling W, Sheng H, Zhou Y, Wu X P, Zeng X X, Wu X W, Guo Y G. Heteroatom-doped electrodes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries with ultralong lifespan[J]. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2018, 6(1): 41-44. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TA07358E. doi: 10.1039/C7TA07358E URL
[116]	Yoon S J, Kim S, Kim D K, So S, Hong Y T, Hempelmann R. Ionic liquid derived nitrogen-doped graphite felt electrodes for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. Carbon, 2020, 166: 131-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2020.05.002. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2020.05.002 URL
[117]	Wu L T, Shen Y, Yu L H, Xi J Y, Qiu X P. Boosting vanadium flow battery performance by Nitrogen-doped carbon nanospheres electrocatalyst[J]. Nano Energy, 2016, 28: 19-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.08.025. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.08.025 URL
[118]	Rümmler S, Steimecke M, Schimpf S, Hartmann M, Förster S, Bron M. Highly graphitic, mesoporous carbon materials as electrocatalysts for vanadium redox reactions in all-vanadium redox-flow batteries[J]. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2018, 165(11): A2510. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.1251810jes.
[119]	Li Q, Bai A Y, Xue Z C, Zheng Y, Sun H. Nitrogen and sulfur co-doped graphene composite electrode with high electrocatalytic activity for vanadium redox flow battery application[J]. Electrochim. Acta, 2020, 362: 137223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.137223. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2020.137223 URL
[120]	Daugherty M C, Gu S Y, Aaron D S, Mallick B C, Gandomi Y A, Hsieh C T. Decorating sulfur and nitrogen co-doped graphene quantum dots on graphite felt as high-performance electrodes for vanadium redox flow batteries[J]. J. Power Sources, 2020, 477: 228709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228709. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228709 URL
[121]	Lu X B, Cheng T, Wang L M, Li F, Bron M. Accessing the electrocatalytic activity of two-dimensional carbons for vanadium redox reactions using Ti as a stable and inert substrate electrode[J]. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2025: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-025-06207-2.
[122]	Lu X B, Li F, Steimecke M, Tariq M, Hartmann M, Bron M. Titanium as a novel substrate for three-dimensional hybrid electrodes for vanadium redox flow battery applications[J]. ChemElectroChem, 2020, 7(3): 737-744. https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.201901896. doi: 10.1002/celc.v7.3 URL
[123]	Wang L M, Wu X, Cheng T, Xue H, Abel B, Li J, Li J F, Ma L Y, Ding J, Wang W Q. Deposition of N-doped graphene and its mechanism study via in situ mass spectrometry[J]. Mater. Chem. Front., 2025. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5QM00013K.
[124]	Zhang L S, Liang X Q, Song W G, Wu Z Y. Identification of the nitrogen species on N-doped graphene layers and Pt/NG composite catalyst for direct methanol fuel cell[J]. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2010, 12(38): 12055-12059. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0CP00789G. doi: 10.1039/c0cp00789g URL
[125]	Luo W, Wang B, Heron C G, Allen MJ, Morre J, Maier C S, Stickle W F, Ji X. Pyrolysis of cellulose under ammonia leads to nitrogen-doped nanoporous carbon generated through methane formation[J]. Nano Lett., 2014, 14(4): 2225-2229. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl500859p. doi: 10.1021/nl500859p URL pmid: 24679142
[126]	Geng Z, Xiao Q F, Lv H, Li B, Wu H B, Lu Y F, Zhang C M. One-step synthesis of microporous carbon monoliths derived from biomass with high nitrogen doping content for highly selective CO₂ capture[J]. Sci. Rep., 2016, 6(1): 30049. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30049. doi: 10.1038/srep30049 URL
[127]	Karnan M, Oladoyinbo F, Noumi GB, Tchatchueng JB, Sieliechi MJ, Sathish M, Pattanayak DK. A simple, economical one-pot microwave assisted synthesis of nitrogen and sulfur co-doped graphene for high energy supercapacitors[J]. Electrochim. Acta, 2020, 341: 135999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.135999. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2020.135999 URL
[128]	Yu H J, Shang L, Bian T, Shi R, Waterhouse G, Zhao Y, Zhou C, Wu L Z, Tung C H, Zhang T R. Nitrogen-doped porous carbon nanosheets templated from g-C₃N₄ as metal-free electrocatalysts for efficient oxygen reduction reaction[J]. Adv. Mater., 2016, 28(25): 5080-5086. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201600398. doi: 10.1002/adma.v28.25 URL
[129]	Shi P C, Yi J D, Liu T T, Li L, Zhang L J, Sun C F, Wang Y B, Huang Y B, Cao R. Hierarchically porous nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes derived from core-shell ZnO@zeolitic imidazolate framework nanorods for highly efficient oxygen reduction reactions[J]. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017, 5(24): 12322-12329. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TA02999C. doi: 10.1039/C7TA02999C URL
[130]	Chen T, Kong W H, Fan M T, Zhang Z W, Wang L, Chen R P, Hu Y, Ma J, Jin Z. Chelation-assisted formation of multi-yolk-shell Co₄N@carbon nanoboxes for self-discharge-suppressed high-performance Li-SeS₂ batteries[J]. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2019, 7(35): 20302-20309. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TA07127J. doi: 10.1039/c9ta07127j URL
[131]	Quevedo A, Bussi J, Tancredi N, Fuentes-Ramírez R, Galindo R, Fajardo-Díaz J L, López-Urías F, Muñoz-Sandoval E. Growth of nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes using Ni/La₂Zr₂O₇ as catalyst: Electrochemical and magnetic studies[J]. Carbon, 2021, 171: 907-920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2020.09.051. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2020.09.051 URL
[132]	Zhao C M, Wang Y, Li Z J, Chen W X, Xu Q, He D S, Xi D S, Zhang Q H, Yuan T W, Qu Y T. Solid-diffusion synthesis of single-atom catalysts directly from bulk metal for efficient CO₂ reduction[J]. Joule, 2019, 3(2): 584-594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.11.008. doi: 10.1016/j.joule.2018.11.008 URL
[133]	Liang H W, Wei W, Wu Z S, Feng X, Mullen K. Mesoporous metal-nitrogen-doped carbon electrocatalysts for highly efficient oxygen reduction reaction[J]. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013, 135(43): 16002-16005. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja407552k. doi: 10.1021/ja407552k URL
[134]	Sun L, Zhou H, Li L, Yao Y, Qu H N, Zhang C L, Liu S H, Zhou Y M. Double soft-template synthesis of nitrogen/sulfur-codoped hierarchically porous carbon materials derived from protic ionic liquid for supercapacitor[J]. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2017, 9(31): 26088-26095. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b07877. doi: 10.1021/acsami.7b07877 URL
[135]	Cheng T K, Qi S T, Jiang Y Q, Feng Z M, Jiang L, Meng W, Zhu J, Dai L, Wang L, He Z X. 3D cross-linked structure of dual-active site CoMoO₄ nanosheets@graphite felt electrode for vanadium redox flow battery[J]. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 2025, 683: 713-721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2024.12.079. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2024.12.079 URL

Catalyst	Strategy	j /(mA·cm^-2)	EE /%	Cycle
N, Bi[83]	Carbonization-adsorption-annealing	240	—	1000
N, O[78]	N/O co-doping	140	—	200
N-doped vertical graphene[84]	In situ Grown	200	87.1	1500
Bi, Mn₃O₄[85]	Annealing	200	87.6	1500
Interwoven carbon fibers[86]	Dual-nozzle electrospinning	400	79.3	1800
Hollow-porous carbon sphere[87]	Acid etching, annealing	200	82.4	1800
Wrinkle-like carbon[88]	Calcination	200	74.5	300