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Figure 5. Specific aspects on future SSE reactors optimization and implementation.
Figure 4. CO₂RR enabled by SSE. (a) The SSE configuration for HCOOH synthesis and the HCOOH FE under different cell voltage [42]. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [42]. Copyright 2019, Springer Nature. (b) The I-V curve of Pb1Cu catalyst during SSE electrolysis (inset: TEM image of the catalyst) [62]. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [62]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (c) A 40-cm² SSE set up for continuous production of 2.5 mol·L^-¹ HCOOH [63]. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [63]. Copyright 2024, National Academy of Sciences. (d) The energy efficiency and HCOOH concentration under series of cell voltage with the energy flow diagram coupling with biosynthesize [64]. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [64]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (e) A tandem system combing electrochemical CO₂ capture and conversion from simulated flue gas [65]. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [65]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.
Figure 3. Electrochemical CO₂ capture via SSE. (a) Schematic illustration of traditional DAC techniques through adsorption/absorption-desorption cycle with temperature and/or pressure control. (b) DAC based on the Kraft process using NaOH as the absorbent. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [47]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. (c) CO₂ recovery from SSE during CO₂RR and the distribution of the recovered gas under different operating current. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [46]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (d) CO₂ capture from dilute gas sources by coupling ORR/OER redox in SSE and the CO₂ capture rate under series of current density [54]. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [54]. Copyright 2023, Springer Nature. (e) CO₂ capture and regeneration from (bi)carbonates using HER/HOR redox in SSE and the CO₂ regeneration rate under different cell voltage with varied NaHCO₃ concentrations [55]. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [55]. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.
Figure 2. Representative electrolyzer configurations of (a) H-type cell, (b) flow cell, (c) MEA cell, and (d) SSE cell.
Figure 1. Schematic of a tandem electrochemical CO₂ capture and conversion system enabled by solid-state electrolyte reactor.
Figure 10. (A) LSV curve illustrating the electrochemical reduction of GO. Inset plots the capacitive currents of rGO recorded at different scan rates. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [92]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society. (B - C) PM IRRAS spectra of the GO film at the gold surface in 0.1 mol·L^-1 NaF/D₂O in the 1500 ~ 1800 cm^-1 region (B) and 1150 ~ 1500 cm^-1 region (C). The potential was cathodically scanned from 0.2 V to -1.0 V. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [92]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society. (D) Variation of the intensities of the C=C (red circles) and C=O (blue triangles) bands in GO as a function of the electrode potential in the cathodic scan (from 0.2 V to -1.0 V). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [92]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society. (D) Schematic illustration of changes in the GO structure with potential. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [92]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society.
Figure 9. (A) Molecular structure of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-cytidine nucleolipid. (B) PM IRRAS spectra of the nucleolipid monolayer in the C-H stretching region at selected potentials. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (C) The average tilt angle of the trans fragments of the acyl chains in the nucleolipid monolayer. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (D) PM IRRAS spectra of the nucleolipid monolayer at the Au(111) surface in the cytidine spectral region at selected electrode potentials, and (E) deconvolution of the average PM IRRAS spectrum in the cytidine spectral region. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (F) Tilt angle of the molecular plane (solid circles) and differential capacitance curve. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (G) Angles between the projection of surface normal on the molecular plane and the transition dipole directions of the vibrations at 1502 cm^-1 (dark green diamonds) and 1525 cm^-1 (blue triangles). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (H) Qualitative picture of the cytosine moiety orientation at negative and positive potentials. The lines represent the directions of the electrode surface normal (the solid red line), the projected surface normal on the molecular plane (the dashed red line), the transition dipole of the vibration at 1502 cm^-1 (the green solid line) and the transition dipole of the vibration at 1523 cm^-1 (the blue solid line). The black arrow represents the permanent dipole of the cytosine moiety. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society.
Figure 8. (A) Model of the DPhPC fBLM with embedded colicin E1. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [70]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (B) PM IRRAS spectrum of the DPhPC/colicin fBLM in the C=O stretching and amide I region and its deconvolution. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [70]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (C) Variation of the average tilt angle of α-helices in colicin (γcolicin) and the membrane resistance of the DPhPC/colicin fBLM (Rm) as a function of the electrode potential. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [70]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (D) Correlation between the changes of the tilt angle of α-helices on the electrode potential. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [70]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society.
Figure 7. Chemical structures of DPTL (A) and disulfide 3 (B). (C) Differential capacitance curves of the DPhPC/disulfide 3 tBLM. The inset shows the AFM topography image of the tBLM. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [58]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (D) Force-distance curve of the DPhPC/disulfide 3 tBLM. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [58]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (E - F) PM-IRRAS spectra of the DPhPC/disulfide 3 tBLM in the C-H stretching (E) and C=O stretching region (F). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [58]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (G) Comparison of the fraction of non-hydrated ester C=O bond in the DPhPC/disulfide 3 tBLM (red circles) and DPhPC/DPTL tBLM (black triangles). (H-J) Variation of the fraction (H), tilt angle (I) and peak center (J) of the β^6.3 conformation (helix dimer) in the gA-DPhPC/disulfide 3 tBLM (red circles) and gA-DPhPC/DPTL tBLM (black triangles) as a function of the electrode.
Figure 6. Background correction by fitting a polynomial: (A) experimental spectrum, (B) spectrum with a background calculated by a polynomial fit to the spectrum with reduced resolution to 17 cm^-1 and smoothed with nine points of smoothing, (C) spectrum obtained by subtracting the background in Figure 6B from the experimental spectrum in Figure 6A.
Figure 5. Background correction procedures using the spline interpolation. (A) Experimental PM IRRAS spectrum, points a, b, c, d, and e are used to construct the spline. (B) Experimental spectrum (the solid line) with the baseline (the dashed line) constructed by the spline interpolation. (C) Spectrum after the baseline subtraction. (D) Absorption spectrum of the same lipid molecule measured by the transmission method. (E) Experimental spectrum (the solid line) with the corrected position of the point c and the new baseline (the dashed line). (F) Spectrum of the sample after subtraction of the baseline in Figure 5E. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [10]. Copyright 2006 University of Guelph.
Figure 4 (A) Picture of the Fresnel program. (B) Dependence of the MSEFS on the gap thickness for the Au/D₂O/CaF₂ configuration.
Figure 3. Plot of the extinction coefficient (k) of H₂O and D₂O as a function of the photon wavenumber.
Figure 2. Principle of the thin layer thickness (gap between the electrode and the IR window) determination. The thickness of the gap is determined from an iterative fit of the experimental data to the spectrum calculated by solving Fresnel equations. The Fresnel program is available from Professor Vlad Zamlynny at Vlad.Zamlynny@acadiau.ca. Prepared by Vlad Zamlynny with permission of the author.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram illustrating the principle of PM IRRAS and a picture of the spectro-electrochemical cell. The red line shows the path of the beam through the photoelastic modulator (PEM), reflected from the electrode surface and incident in the detector. Prepared by Vlad Zamlynny with permission of the author.
Figure 10. (a) EDL capacitance of a specific IL [Emim][TFSA] for different oxides plotted against the ionicity of the oxides[85].
Figure 9. (a) EDL capacitance of IL at the interface of thin film TiO₂ plotted against the film thickness, along with the Mott-Schottky plots in the inset. (b) EDL capacitance of IL at the interface of thin film SrO plotted against the thickness. The inset is the plot of the leakage film resistance R_SrO against the thickness[85].
Figure 8. (a) Mott-Schottky plots of the 26 nm-thick ZnO and ZnO substrate of Fig. 7, and that of a 32 nm-thick MgZnO film. (b) Flat-band potentials and EDL capacitance values around the flat-band potential for the ZnO and MgZnO films plotted against their film thicknesses, respectively[98].
Figure 7. (a) - (b) RHEED patterns of a ZnO(000-1) single crystal substrate after surface cleaning and a 26 nm-thick ZnO film subsequently deposited on the substrate. (c) CV curves in an IL [Emim][TFSA] for the ZnO single crystal substrate and film [98].
Figure 6. (a) I-V curves for successive samples before and after SrO deposition, along with their corresponding in situ RHEED patterns. (b) The apparent capacitance, C (red), which was evaluated by impedance analysis with the inset equivalent circuit model, along with the band profile of SrO/Nb:STO near the interface with the IL. (c) Apparent capacitance, C (red) for a 2 nm-thick EuO thin film, which was estimated by impedance analysis with the inset equivalent circuit model, plotted as a function of electrode potential U. (d) Mott-Schottky plot of C_EuO calculated by subtracting the contribution of EDL[85,88].

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