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Figure 5. High resolution HAADF STEM images, Pt(red) and Ni(green) EDX mapping and corresponding line-scanning profiles of PNC-O and PNC-A before and after ADTs.
Figure 4. (a) I-V and (b) I-P curves of MEA-PNC-A (—), MEA-PNC-O (—), and MEA-PC (—). The ■, ●, ▲symbols stand for the performances of initial, after 5k ADT, and after 30k ADT, respectively. (c) Tafel plots of MEA-PNC-A (—), MEA-PNC-O (—), and MEA-PC (—). (d) CV curves of MEA-PNC-A (—), MEA-PNC-O (—), and MEA-PC (—). (e) P_m, (f) ORR mass activity and (g) ECSA plots of MEA for MEA-PNC-A (—), MEA-PNC-O (—), and MEA-PC (—).
Figure 3. (a) CV curves of PNC-A (—), PNC-O(—), Pt/C-JM(—) in N₂ saturated 0.1 mol·L^-1 HClO₄ solution, — and --- stands for the curves of initial and after 5k ADT, respectively. (b) LSV curves of PNC-A, PNC-O, Pt/C-JM in O₂ saturated 0.1 mol·L^-1 HClO₄ solution. (c) ECSA plots of three catalysts before and after ADT, (d) ORR mass activity plots of three catalysts before and after ADT.
Figure 2. (a) XRD patterns of PNC-A, PNC-O, and Pt/C-JM, XPS profiles and deconvolution of (b) Pt 4f and (c) Ni 2p of PNC-A, PNC-O and Pt/C-JM.
Figure 1. TEM images and size distribution curves of PNC-O (a-c) and PNC-A(d-f).
Fig. 8. A schematic diagram illustrates the fundamental materials design, commercial application, and industry implementation of ASIBs.
Fig. 7. (a) Schematic diagram of aqueous sodium-ion based dual-ion hybrid battery. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [64]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society (b) Schematic illustration of flexible ASIBs and photographs of quasi-solid-state devices under different bending conditions. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [65]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society (c) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of the CFARSIB. (d) Charge-discharge curves of the CFARSIB at different bending angles. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [66]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.
Fig. 6. Summary of design of the electrolyte/anode interface. (a) Snapshots of WISE under equilibrium conditions. (b) Galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of NVTP/C symmetrical cells with 32K8N electrolyte at varied current density. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [57]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (c) Schematic illustration of the design strategy of aqueous electrolytes with a wide ESW. (d) ²³Na NMR chemical shifts and Raman spectra of ClO₄^- stretching vibration in different electrolyte systems. (e) LSV curves of different electrolytes at a scanning rate of 10 mV s^-1. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [58]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. (f) Schematic illustration of the solvation structure for WLE. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [59]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. (g) Schematic formation mechanism of salt-insoluble interphase. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [63]. Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH.
Fig. 5. Summary of the NTP-based anodes. (a) The dark field image of NTP/VGCF@C. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [50]. Copyright 2023, MDPI. (b) CV curves (inset: Schematic diagram) of C-NTP. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [51]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (c) HR-TEM image of TiN modified NaTi₂(PO₄)₃ (N-1.5h). Reproduced with permission of Ref. [52]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (d) Image diagram of the NTP particles with Na-rich interfacial coating. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [54]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society (e) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of CNTF. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [55]. Copyright 2019, Springer Singapore.
Fig. 4. Summary of construction of the advanced NTP anodes. (a) Ex-situ XRD pattern for Na₂Ti_3/2Mn_1/2(PO₄)₃ at various charge/discharge states. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [45]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Local structures of NTFP obtained by Rietveld refinements and (c) charge/discharge curves of NTFP/C tested in an aqueous half-cell at 2C rate. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [25]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) TEM image of the Na₃MgTi(PO₄)₃. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [48]. Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. (e) TEM image (inset: magnified TEM) of the hollow NTP. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [18]. Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH. (f) The microstructures of the NTP@C. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [49]. Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH.
Fig. 3. Scheme of the advantages and challenges of the NTP anode in ASIBs. (a) Radar chart of different anode materials. (b) Na⁺ ion storage mechanism of the different anodic hosts. (c) Structure diagram of the NTP. (d) Challenges of the NTP anode.
Fig. 2. Schematic the roadmap of ASIBs. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [15]. Copyright 1988, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [16]. Copyright 2010, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [17]. Copyright 2014, Wiley-VCH. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [12]. Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [18]. Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [19]. Copyright, 2023 Wiley-VCH. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [24]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.
Fig. 1. A comparison of aqueous sodium-ion batteries with other battery systems. (a) Comparison of different batteries in terms of energy density, operation voltage, specific capacity, and safety. (b) Reactions in aqueous multivalent metal batteries. (c) Comparative studies on the element abundance of several important elements in the upper continental crust and the corresponding price of raw materials. (d) Potential of Mⁿ⁺/M electrode potentials. (e) The number of publications on ASIBs in the last 10 years.
Fig. 20. a. Electrochemical cell performance in 2wt.% KOH and 80 ℃; b. EIS of 4 different cells (cathode/separator/anode) at 200 mA∙cm^-2. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [53]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
Fig. 19. a. Membrane compositions after treatment in aqueous KOH of different concentrations at 88 ^oC; b. Remaining membrane mass after treatment in aqueous KOH of concentrations ranging from 0 to 50wt% at 88 ^oC for up to 200 days. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [53]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
Fig. 18. a. polarization curves for the alkaline water electrolysis with NPBI-BS-47 ISM at different concentrations of KOH; b. Nyquist plots of EIS spectra (0.1 A∙cm⁻²) of NPBI-BS-47 membrane at different concentrations of KOH. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [65]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Fig. 17. Properties and stability of POBP-ISMs. a. Hydroxide conductivity of membranes the function of KOH concentration and temperature. b. Comparison of area resistance (AR) at -35 °C -120 °C of different membranes: Zirfon, POBP-ISM, and PPS diaphragm. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [44]. Copyright 2024, nature.
Fig. 16. a. Ion conductivity isotherms of aqueous KOH (open symbols) and of mes-PBI equilibrated in the corresponding KOH solutions (solid symbols); b. M_n relative to initial M_n for mes-PBI and m-PBI18 at diﬀerent durations of aging in 10 and 50wt% aqueous KOH at 88 ^oC. Reproduced with permission of Ref. [63]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.
Table 3. Durability stabilities of Various ISM membranes
Fig. 15. Tensile strengths of various ISM membranes.

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