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a-b) SEM images of the Ni₂P-based catalyst. c-d) LSV curves of Ni₂P-based catalyst in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH with/without 10 mmol·L^-1 HMF under 2 mV·s^-1 scan rate for HMF oxidation (c) and HMF-assisted water electrolysis (d). e) The FE for both hydrogen and FDCA generation as shown in (c, d). Reproduced with permission from Ref. 179. Copyright 2016 John Wiley and Sons. f-g) LSV curves of the oxidations of furfuryl alcohol (FFA) (f) and furfuryl (FF) using a Ni₃S₂-based catalyst. Insets show the chemical formula. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 180. Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society. (color on line)
a-b) SEM images of the NiFeO_x-Ni foam (a) and NiFeN_x-Ni foam (b). c-f) The LSV (c, e) and Tafel slopes (d, f) of NiFeO_x and NiFeN_x for HER (c, d) and GEOR (e, f) in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH with glucose concentration of 100 mmol·L^-1 under 5 mV·s^-1 scan rate. g-h) Polarization comparison between glucose or alkaline water electrolysis (g) and long-term stability of glucose electrolysis at 1.4 V cell potential. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 172. Copyright 2020 Springer Nature. (color on line)
a) Scheme of the electrocatalytic, alcohol-assisted hydrogen productions that save energy and generate value-adding products. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 159. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. b-c) LSV polarization curves for the HER (b) and ethanol oxidation (c) catalysing with bifunctional 3D PdCu NSs, PdCu NPs, Pd NSs, and Pd black. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 165. Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons. (color on line)
a) Polarization curves of CoMn/CoMn₂O₄ bifunctional catalyst for HER, UOR, and OER. b) Comparison in the polarization curves of CoMn/CoMn₂O₄ catalyzing alkaline or urea water electrolysis. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 144. Copyright 2020 John Wiley and Sons. c) Scheme of urea-assisted water electrolysis to cost-effectively degrade wastewater and produce H₂. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 149. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (color on line)
a) SEM image of Ni₂P nanosheet on Ni foam. b-c) LSV curves of various catalysts towards HzOR in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH and 0.5 mol·L^-1 hydrazine (b), and of Ni₂P catalyzed hydrazine-assisted HER in a two-electrode configuration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 128. Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons. d) LSV curves of NiCo/MXene catalyzing HzOR or OER in 1.0 mol·L^-1 KOH with/without 0.5 mol·L^-1 hydrazine, highlighting the favoured HzOR over OER. e) Scheme of a cost-effective and sustainable hydrogen production by renewable-powered seawater electrolyzer with sea water and industrial hydrazine sewage as feeds. f) LSV curves of hydrazine-assisted water electrolysis hydrogen productions compared to alkaline water electrolysis. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 135. Copyright 2021 Springer Nature. (color on line)
a-b) Schematic illustration of interlayer space changes during lithiation/delithiation of LCO and therefore the in situ strain applicable on Pt clusters. b) The XRD patterns of LCO (003) peak indicating the strain. c) The comparison of oxygen reduction activities of strained Pt clusters. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 126. Copyright 2016 American Association for the Advancement of Science. (color on line)
a) Scheme of the two-step electrodeposition-electropolymerization preparation of PANI/Ni/NF. b) SEM image of PANI/Ni/NF. c) LSV plots of PANI/Ni/NF with control groups in 1.0 mol·L^-1 KOH. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 119. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (color on line)
a) SEM image of the as-grown MoS₂ NPs on carbon film. b) Scheme of the lithium intercalation setup to tailor the structure of MoS₂. c) Raman spectra of MoS₂ samples indicating 1T phase formation after lithiation. d) Polarization curves of MoS₂ samples catalyzing HER. e) Tafel plots of L-MoS₂, S-MoS₂, Li-MoS₂, and Pt wire. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 105. Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society. (color on line)
a) Scheme for the one-step electrochemical synthesis of the NiFeW/CP. b-d) SEM (b, c) and STEM-EDS (d) images of the morphology and elemental distribution of the NiFeW/CP. e-f) HER polarization (e) and Tafel (f) curves of the NiFeW/CP and control groups. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 87. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (color on line)
a-b) SEM (a) and confocal (b) images of mesoporous Fe-Pt film electrodeposited on Au. c) LSV curves of the Fe-Pt film on Au. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 73. Copyright 2018 John Wiley and Sons. d-e) Current response to the nanodroplet collision onto a carbon fiber ultramicroelectrode (d), with the scheme (e) of rapid NP formation at the interface. f) HAADF-STEM images of a CoFeNiLaPt NP with high-resolution EDS images and SAED pattern indicating an amorphous microstructure. g) Electrocatalytic water electrolysis test of CoFeNiLaPt NP (turquoise curve) and each of its components. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 79. Copyright 2019 Springer Nature. (color on line)
a) Scheme of the solvothermal-electrodeposition process for preparing PtCu/WO₃@CF. b-c) representative SEM (b) and TEM (c) images of PtCu/WO₃@CF. The zoomed images 1 and 2 (right) in (c) are the enlarged feature in the yellow squares 1 and 2 (left). d) LSV plots of PtCu/WO₃@CF and other control catalysts for HER. e) Pt mass-specific current density graphs of PtCu/WO₃@CF and commercial Pt/C at different potentials. f) Tafel plots of PtCu/WO₃@CF and other control catalysts from the LSV result. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 71. Copyright 2022 John Wiley and Sons. (color on line)
a) Schematic representation of the atomically dispersed Pt on curved CNT surface catalysing the HER. b) Polarization curves of CNT, graphite, their activated counter parts, and commercial Pt/C, in a 0.5 mol·L^-1 H₂SO₄ solution with Pt foil as the counter electrode. The inset shows the activation setup. c-d) Bright field (c) and corresponding high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) (d) images of a CNT bundle after activation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 59. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. e) Scheme showing the electrodeposition of Pt on Ni₃N and the synergetic HER mechanisms of Ni₃N/Pt. f-g) SEM (f) and HRTEM (g) images of Ni₃N/Pt. Inset in (g) is the selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns of Ni₃N/Pt. h) HER activity of Ni₃N/Pt in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH compared with various control groups. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 64. Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons. (color on line)
a-c) The HER voltrammograms of Pt clusters (a, b) and nanoparticles (b) on ultramicroelectrodes of Bi (a, c) and Pb (b). The red curves represent experimental results, while the black ones are simulated results. d) The HER kinetic constant as a function of the Pt radius and type of substrate. The blue line represents the one for bulk Pt. The Pb one is magnified 200 times for comparison. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 46. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. e-f) Scheme (e) and SEM image (f) of porous Pt layer electrochemically grown on the Pt cathode. g-j) SEM images of porous Pt obtained from the same electrolyte under different potentials. k-n) SEM images of porous Pt obtained under the same potential at different additive concentrations. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 47. Copyright 2021 Springer Nature. (color on line)
a) Scheme of the electrodeposition and HER analysis protocols for Pt clusters. b) LSV plots for Pt clusters under 50 mV·s^-1 in a deaerated 40 mmol·L^-1 HClO₄ and 0.5 mol·L^-1 NaClO₄, with which the cluster size can be estimated. c) Zoomed region in (b) at a current density of 12.6 pA·nm^-2, which demonstrated the increasing HER activity of Pt clusters with sizes. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 45. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. (color on line)
Typical potential/current-time curves for a) cyclic voltammetry, b) linear scanning voltammetry, c) chronoamperometry, and (d) galvanostatic charge/discharge test. (color on line)
a) Scheme of an electrochemical cell consisting (solid lines) a tank, a WE, a CE, a power supply, an electrolyte, and possibly (dash lines) a RE, an additional voltameter, a separator, and supporting electrolytes. b) Scheme of a typical non-divided cell (left) and a divided “H” cell (right). (color on line)
Scheme of the electrochemical synthesis associated with water electrolysis hydrogen production. The left side lists electrochemical syntheses of HER electrocatalysts, including PGMs, TMs, alloys, TMOs, TMPs, TMDs, TMCs, and others. The right side summarizes electrochemical oxidations of small molecules to form co-electrolysis with HER, including HzOR, UOR, AmOR, AORs, CHOORs, amine ORs, AhORs, and WOR. (color on line)
Calculated free energy diagrams of (A) acidic HER and (B) alkaline HER. (C) and (D) show the optimized structures of acidic and alkaline HER intermediate reactants adsorbed on the catalyst surface, respectively. (color on line)
Differential charge density graphs of (A) c-RuO₂ and (B) a-RuO₂. Charge density graphs of (C) c-RuO₂ and (D) a-RuO₂. (E) Total density of states (TDOS) plots of c-RuO₂ and a-RuO₂. Ru 3d orbital projected density of states (PDOS) plots for (F) c-RuO₂ and (G) a-RuO₂. 3D ELF maps of (H) c-RuO₂ and (I) a-RuO₂. (color on line)
(A) LSV curves and (B) Tafel plots of a-RuO₂, c-RuO₂, and Pt/C in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH. (C) Current-time plot of a-RuO₂ in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH. (D) LSV curves of a-RuO₂ before and after 1000 cycles in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH. (E) Nyquist plots of a-RuO₂, c-RuO₂, and Pt/C in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH. The inset is analog circuit diagram (F) The corresponding overpotentials at 10 and 100 mA·cm^-2 in 1 mol·L^-1 KOH. (color on line)

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